The Differences Between DNA and RNA

Although their names may sound familiar, DNA and RNA are often confused for one another when there are in fact several key differences between these two carriers of genetic information.  Deoxyribonucleic acid  (DNA) and  ribonucleic acid  (RNA) both are made of nucleotides and serve a role in the production of protein and other parts of cells, but there are some key elements of both that differ on the nucleotide and base levels. Evolutionarily, scientists believe that RNA may have been the building block of early primitive organisms due to its simpler structure and its pivotal function of transcribing DNA sequences so that other parts of the cell may understand them—meaning RNA would have to exist in order for DNA to function, so it stands to reason RNA came first in the evolution of multi-celled organisms. Among these core differences between DNA and RNA is that RNAs backbone is made of a different sugar than DNAs, RNAs use of uracil instead of thymine in its nitrogenous base, and the number of strands on  each type of genetic information carriers molecules. Which Came First in Evolution? While there are arguments for DNA occurring naturally in the world first, it is generally agreed upon that RNA came before DNA for a variety of reasons, starting with its simpler structure and more easily interpretable codons which would allow for faster genetic evolution through reproduction and repetition. Many primitive prokaryotes use RNA as their genetic material and did not evolve DNA, and RNA can still be used as a catalyst for chemical reactions like enzymes. There are also clues, within viruses that use only RNA, that RNA may be more ancient than DNA, and scientists even refer to a time before DNA as the â€Å"RNA world. Then why did DNA evolve at all? This question is still being investigated, but one possible explanation is that DNA is more highly protected and harder to break down than RNA—it is both twisted and â€Å"zipped† up in a double-stranded molecule which adds protection from injury and digestion by enzymes. Primary Differences DNA and RNA are made up of subunits called nucleotides wherein all nucleotides have a sugar backbone, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base, and both DNA and RNA have sugar â€Å"backbones† that are made up of five carbon molecules; however, they are different sugars that make them up. DNA is made up of deoxyribose and RNA is made up of ribose, which may sound similar and have similar structures, but the deoxyribose sugar molecule is missing one oxygen that a ribose molecule sugar has, and this makes a big enough change to make the backbones of these nucleic acids different. The nitrogenous bases of RNA and DNA are also different, though in both these bases can be categorized into two main groups: the pyrimidines which have a single ring structure and purines which have a double ring structure. In both DNA and RNA, when complementary strands are made, a purine must match up with a pyrimidine to keep the width of the â€Å"ladder† at three rings. The purines in both RNA and DNA are called adenine and guanine, and they also both have a pyrimidine called cytosine; however, their second pyrimidine is different: DNA uses thymine while RNA includes uracil instead. When complementary strands are made of the genetic material, cytosine always matches up with guanine and adenine will match up with thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA). This is called the â€Å"base pairing rules† and was discovered by Erwin Chargaff in the early 1950s. Another difference between DNA and RNA is the number of strands of the molecules. DNA is a double helix meaning it has two twisted strands that are complementary to each other match up by the base pairing rules while RNA, on the other hand, is only single-stranded and created in most eukaryotes by making a complementary strand to a single DNA strand. Comparison Chart for DNA and RNA Comparison DNA RNA Name DeoxyriboNucleic Acid RiboNucleic Acid Function Long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms. Used to transfer the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosomes to make proteins. RNA is used to transmit genetic information in some organisms and may have been the molecule used to store genetic blueprints in primitive organisms. Structural Features B-form double helix. DNA is a double-stranded molecule consisting of a long chain of nucleotides. A-form helix. RNA usually is a single-strand helix consisting of shorter chains of nucleotides. Composition of Bases and Sugars deoxyribose sugarphosphate backboneadenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine bases ribose sugarphosphate backboneadenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil bases Propagation DNA is self-replicating. RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis. Base Pairing AT (adenine-thymine)GC (guanine-cytosine) AU (adenine-uracil)GC (guanine-cytosine) Reactivity The C-H bonds in DNA make it fairly stable, plus the body destroys enzymes that would attack DNA. The small grooves in the helix also serve as protection, providing minimal space for enzymes to attach. The O-H bond in the ribose of RNA makes the molecule more reactive, compared with DNA. RNA is not stable under alkaline conditions, plus the large grooves in the molecule make it susceptible to enzyme attack. RNA is constantly produced, used, degraded, and recycled. Ultraviolet Damage DNA is susceptible to UV damage. Compared with DNA, RNA is relatively resistant to UV damage. The Differences Between DNA and RNA DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, while RNA is ribonucleic acid. Although DNA and RNA both carry genetic information, there are quite a few differences between them. This is a comparison of the differences between DNA versus RNA, including a quick summary and a detailed table of the differences. Summary of Differences Between DNA and RNA DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, while RNA contains the sugar ribose. The only difference between ribose and deoxyribose is that ribose has one more -OH group than deoxyribose, which has -H attached to the second (2) carbon in the ring.DNA is a double-stranded molecule while RNA is a single-stranded molecule.DNA is stable under alkaline conditions while RNA is not stable.DNA and RNA perform different functions in humans. DNA is responsible for storing and transferring genetic information while RNA directly codes for amino acids and as acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins.DNA and RNA base pairing is slightly different since DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine; RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. Uracil differs from thymine in that it lacks a methyl group on its ring. Comparison of DNA and RNA While both DNA and RNA are used to store genetic information, there are clear differences between them. This table summarizes the key points: Comparison DNA RNA Name DeoxyriboNucleic Acid RiboNucleic Acid Function Long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms. Used to transfer the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosomes to make proteins. RNA is used to transmit genetic information in some organisms and may have been the molecule used to store genetic blueprints in primitive organisms. Structural Features B-form double helix. DNA is a double-stranded molecule consisting of a long chain of nucleotides. A-form helix. RNA usually is a single-strand helix consisting of shorter chains of nucleotides. Composition of Bases and Sugars deoxyribose sugarphosphate backboneadenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine bases ribose sugarphosphate backboneadenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil bases Propagation DNA is self-replicating. RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis. Base Pairing AT (adenine-thymine)GC (guanine-cytosine) AU (adenine-uracil)GC (guanine-cytosine) Reactivity The C-H bonds in DNA make it fairly stable, plus the body destroys enzymes that would attack DNA. The small grooves in the helix also serve as protection, providing minimal space for enzymes to attach. The O-H bond in the ribose of RNA makes the molecule more reactive, compared with DNA. RNA is not stable under alkaline conditions, plus the large grooves in the molecule make it susceptible to enzyme attack. RNA is constantly produced, used, degraded, and recycled. Ultraviolet Damage DNA is susceptible to UV damage. Compared with DNA, RNA is relatively resistant to UV damage. Which Came First? While there is some evidence DNA may have occurred first, most scientists believe RNA evolved before DNA. RNA has a simpler structure and is needed in order for DNA to function. Also, RNA is found in prokaryotes, which are believed to precede eukaryotes. RNA on its own can act as a catalyst for certain chemical reactions. The real question is why DNA evolved if RNA existed. The most likely answer for this is that having a double-stranded molecule helps protect the genetic code from damage. If one strand is broken, the other strand can serve as a template for repair. Proteins surrounding DNA also confer additional protection against enzymatic attack. Unusual DNA and RNA While the most common form of DNA is a double helix. there is evidence for rare cases of branched DNA, quadruplex DNA,  and molecules made from triple strands. Scientists have found DNA in which arsenic substitutes for phosphorus. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) sometimes occurs. It is similar to DNA, except thymine is replaced by uracil. This type of RNA is found in some viruses. When these viruses infect eukaryotic cells, the dsRNA can interfere with normal RNA function and stimulate an interferon response. Circular single strand RNA (circRNA) has been found in both animals and plants. At present, the function of this type of RNA is unknown. Sources Burge S, Parkinson GN, Hazel P, Todd AK, Neidle S (2006). Quadruplex DNA: sequence, topology and structure. Nucleic Acids Research. 34 (19): 5402–15. doi:10.1093/nar/gkl655Whitehead KA, Dahlman JE, Langer RS, Anderson DG (2011). Silencing or stimulation? siRNA delivery and the immune system. Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. 2: 77–96. doi:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061010-114133

Mccarthyism And The Salem Witch Trials - 1360 Words

Taylor Jarvis Mr. Hansen English 11A B3 17 December, 2015 McCarthyism Our job as Americans and as Republicans is to dislodge the traitors from every place where they ve been sent to do their traitorous work.(McCarthy, Joseph R.) McCarthyism is when people make accusations of treason without evidence, and take advantage of some extreme fear in order to send people they don’t like to jail or to death. Though wrong, it was used many times throughout history. I intend to explain how McCarthyism is comparable to what happened in the Salem Witch Trials, how it was used in The Red Scare, and the effects of it on the people accused. McCarthyism is very similar to what happened during the Salem Witch Trials. The Witch Trials were during a time in early American history when people were very superstitious and religious. During the Salem Witch Trials many people were accused for no reason. Some things they were convicted for were being an old woman, not knowing the ten commandments, and for being disabled. This went on for more than one hundred years across Europe before moving on to the Americas. Many people convicted were put away or killed on false charges known as fallacies. Some fallacies used in the Salem Witch Trials were also used during other instances where mccarthyism was used. A few are The unclear or wrong cause and effect fallacy that says that something completely unrelated is the cause of something else. So for example, if someone’s son isn’t baptized, someoneShow MoreRelatedThe Salem Witch Trials And Mccarthyism1275 Words   |  6 Pagesthat history no longer matters because it is in the past, the Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism are prime examples of how history constantly repeats itself and influence how we live today for the reason that both historic eras consist of the following: they have similar histories, connect in significant ways, and include comparable situations and themes that are evident today affecting us on a daily basis whether or not we realize. Salem, Massachusetts was the home of a theocratic government systemRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials And Mccarthyism782 Words   |  4 Pagesoccurrence. We saw it during the Salem Witch Trials, the Red Scare and more recently, in the situation of the Guantanamo Bay prison. Although the Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism are differed in the fact that one was based on religion and the other was politically based, both events had striking similarities. In both events, innocent people were accused and mass hysteria was generated through public trials. As I previously mentioned, the Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism were quite similar. For oneRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials And Mccarthyism1327 Words   |  6 Pagesthat history no longer matters because it is in the past, the Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism are prime examples of how history constantly repeats itself and influence how we live today for the reason that both historic eras consist of the following: they have similar history, connect in significant ways, and include comparable situations and themes that are evident today effecting us on a daily bases whether or not we realize. Salem, Massachusetts was the home of a theocracy government systemRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism666 Words   |  3 Pagesthe Salem witch trials and red scare, are often overlooked. These events symbolize times of despair, weakness, and slander, to which the essence of the events is nearly identical. The Salem witch trials can be closely compared to McCarthyism and the red scare, based on the similarities of suspicion, accusation, and prosecution. Despite the difference of roughly two hundred and sixty years, the outcome of such uprisings has remained unchanged. The morals discovered during the Salem witch trials failedRead MoreMccarthyism : Salem Witch Trials1246 Words   |  5 PagesDuring the Salem witch trials in Salem, Massachusetts and McCarthyism all across America many of the traits were historically similar and based on little or no evidence. When looking back on witchcraft in the 1600s and McCarthyism in the 1940s and 50s life at the time had many influenc es and many things parallel; both were caused by fear and paranoia and resulted in destruction. The witch trials in Salem and the hearings all across America about McCarthyism were influenced by daily activities andRead MoreMccarthyism And The Salem Witch Trials1195 Words   |  5 PagesMcCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence (â€Å"McCarthyism†). The Salem Witch Trials was when more than 200 people were accused of practicing witchcraft and 20 were killed because of these accusations (Brooks). During the Red Scare like there are accusations of people committing treason during the Red Scare. In The Crucible people are accused of being witches during the Salem Witch trials. There are many similarities and differencesRead MoreSalem Witch Trials And Mccarthyism Are Similar Essay1230 Words   |  5 PagesOctober 18, 2016 How Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism are Similar In this process essay the reader will learn how the Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism are similar. Both situations ended up taking on a mob mentality. The Salem Witch Trials started in 1690s when the Trials began, and by the end, over 200 people were accused of witchcraft. The people had a strong belief of the devil and were very religious. The outside threats that were surrounding the people of Salem had created a fear andRead MoreMccarthyism And Salem Witch Trials Essay1127 Words   |  5 PagesMcCarthyism and The Salem Witch Trials In Arthur Miller’s â€Å"The Crucible† it tells the tale of the Salem Witch Trials. At the time of the play, the McCarthy trials, named after Sen. Joseph McCarthy, were underway. Though, instead of hunting for witches, they were hunting for communists. These two trials may have happened at different points in history, but were in many ways the same. Whether it was death to job loss a lot of lives were changed on account of these trials. â€Å"The Crucible† and the McCarthyRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials And Mccarthyism1353 Words   |  6 Pages†-George Santayana. The Salem Witch Trials show a lot about how this world’s beliefs grew and developed in early America and Europe. Much of the prosecution of witches started because of the Roman Catholic Church; they created the belief of witches that led to the Salem Witch Trials. The Trials in Salem were a time when the people were scared of magic and what it could do, that led to the deaths of multiple people. The McCarthy Trials also show a resemblance to the witch trials in Salem as the idea of whatRead MoreSalem Witch Trial vs Mccarthyism1208 Words   |  5 PagesA review of A Fever in Salem: A New Interpretation of the New England Witch Trials, by Laurie Winn Carlson, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago, 2000; 224 pp. $14.95 Paperback. ISBN: 1-566633095 A FEVER IN SALEM POSITS A biological cause for the early modem witchcraft epidemic, which resulted in the hanging of 19 people in Salem, MA, in 1692. Witchcraft persecution, Laurie Carlson writes, arose because of the strange behavior of the supposedly bewitched accusers. She concludes that the cause was a disease unrecognizable

No Idea Free Essays

GRANITE SLABS AT ACCOMMODATION CLUSTER 1. Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 1: â€Å"If you †¦ do not understand that you got to defend this [Country], then in the end we will lose. Others will come, smack you down and take over. We will write a custom essay sample on No Idea or any similar topic only for you Order Now † Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister (1967) Quote 2: (Proposed @ Sierra) â€Å"What he or she has in Singapore, he or she must be prepared to fight for and defend. Otherwise it will be lost. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister (1967) Quote 3: â€Å"An officer must live by the SAFTI motto – â€Å"To Lead, To Excel, To Overcome†. He must be ready to serve not just for himself but for the sake of a greater good: his comrades, his men, his unit and his country. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 4: â€Å"The success of Singapore depends upon how well we uphold these ideals: the constant drive to excel in all that we do, as individuals and as a nation, and a willingness to share responsibility for the common good. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 5: â€Å"The SAF is a citizens’ militia, and its officer corps has a leadership role that extends beyond the SAF. The values inculcated in SAF officers are the same ones that they will transmit to their men, and which will permeate our society. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 6: â€Å"However, no one can teach each of you how to be a leader of men. You will have to learn how to earn the respect and confidence of other men placed under your charge, what moves them, and why some officers are better than others in getting their men to do better. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 7: â€Å"You will be responsible not only for what you yourself do, but also for your subordinates, what they do, or fail to do. Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 8: â€Å"However, later in life, you will realise that how to get on with other men and how to get them to do things to the best of their ability, are amongst the most important things in life. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 9: â€Å"There are several characteristics common in men in top positions: strength of character and a mind able to take in the details and complexities of a problem quickly, seize hold of the essential elements, and act decisively to tackle the problem. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew Quote 10: â€Å"The SAF must have men who are emotionally stable and totally committed to Singapore. We shall have an efficient and effective defence force, dedicated to ensure the security of all in Singapore. † Mr Lee Kuan Yew 2. Dr Goh Keng Swee Quote 11: â€Å"We must never forget that our existence as an independent sovereign state cannot be made to depend on the sufferance of others. The most dependable guarantee of our independence is a strong SAF: A strong SAF, in turn, depends on the political will to make the effort and pay the price. Dr Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Defence (1984) Quote 12: â€Å"Singapore survives and prospers because it has been able to adjust to quickly changing situations. For this, we need people with keen minds, able to see beyond the routine and the ordinary to perceive the big opportunities ahead and to think out bold, imaginative yet practical plans and to carry these out successfully. † Dr Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Defence (1972) Q uote 13: â€Å"The guns we provide the SAF are as effective as the soldiers who fire them. The soldiers are as effective as the officers who lead them. † Dr Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Defence (1981) 3. Dr Ng Eng Hen Quote 14: (Proposed @ Bravo) â€Å"The ultimate measure of the SAF’s strength lie in the will and resolve of our people to defend Singapore. † Dr Ng Eng Hen, Minister for Defence (2011) 4. Dr Tony Tan Quote 15: (Proposed @ Hotel) â€Å"The defence of Singapore is the sacred duty and solemn responsibility of each and every Singaporean who calls our Nation home. † Dr Tony Tan, Minister for Defence (2000) How to cite No Idea, Papers

Course Reflection Paper free essay sample

Course Reflection Paper: In the Course Reflection Paper, please provide a comprehensive response to each of the following questions. The completed paper should be NO LESS than five (5) pages of content, typed, double-spaced, Times New Roman font, 12 pt. , APA style. Please include a title page (not counted as one of the five pages) with your name, course name, and the date of submission. 1. What were your general views about psychology before taking this course? What is your perception of this course now that you have completed it? If you could put those thoughts into one word, what would it be? 2. Which chapter or subject was the most significant to you? Explain why? Describe the most significant learning experience that you had in this course. 3. Describe the thing that you enjoyed most about this course. Describe the thing that you enjoyed least about this course. 4. Describe one thing that you would do to improve the way this course is taught. We will write a custom essay sample on Course Reflection Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Describe one thing that you think would improve student interaction in this course. 5. Is there a specific principle learned in this course that you plan to apply to enhance your personal development? 6. What is your major? In what way(s) could the knowledge gained in this course assist you in the career you have chosen? 7. Imagine that you are a clinical psychologist and you are working with a family from a different country. Why would it be important to understand their culture and background prior to making an assessment or diagnosis of their behavior? (example: The symptoms of depression are expressed differently in eastern cultures as opposed to western cultures. ) 8. Explain how sociocultural influences, such as the media, the family, and religion, impact personality development, behavior and mental processes. 9. Social researchers have concluded that sexual orientation is determined by a combination of hereditary and environmental factors. According to what you have studied during the semester, do you believe that sexual orientation is based more on heredity, more on environment, or a combination of both? Provide a detailed explanation of your choice. 10. What was the impact on the field and practice of psychology given its early development by a predominately white male professional base to the exclusion of minorities and women? Identify and discuss two theories/hypotheses that have been developed as a result of the inclusion of minorities and women.